IV. Set Design & Construction

• Set Design
• Set Construction
• Housekeeping
• Storage of Materials

1. Planning
The first step in set design is securing a complete set of design drawings in order to have a clear idea of the overall scope of the project. Make sure all set pieces are included, including any furniture and/or prop items that may need to be built. Some key items to consider before you get started:

• Know your budget
• Analyze your set plan into individual elements
• Select your materials
• Estimate man hours required
• Know where and how to acquire materials
• Schedule set assembly & installation

2. Props and Decoration
Decorative materials include curtains, draperies, streamers, fabrics, cotton batting, straw, hay, vines, leaves, stalks, tress and moss.  Decorative materials may be used only if they are noncombustible or flame resistant or have been rendered so with commercially available products.  Contact the Production Office at Richardson Auditorium for information on how to obtain fire retardant treatments.  Contact the University Fire Marshal at 8-6805 or rgg@princeton.edu if you have any questions about the approved use of decorative materials.

3.  Structural Issues for Set Design
Any set design which includes steps, ladders, traps or other specialty devices must be approved by the Production Office at Richardson Auditorium (8-6090 or cgorzeln@princeton.edu).  Mark changes in elevation on the stage with phosphorescent tape.  Pits, traps and other hazards should be marked with signs or barricaded when not in use.

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1.  Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment includes all types of equipment used to increase individual safety while performing potentially hazardous tasks.  This may include eye and face protection, head protection, foot protection, hand protection, respiratory protection, or any equipment used to protect against injury or illness.  Environmental Health and Safety (8-5294) can help in assessing the need and making selections of personal protective equipment.  Personal protective equipment items may be purchased from most hardware stores or through any safety supply catalog.

Safety Glasses: Safety glasses look very much like normal glasses but are designed and manufactured to certain standards to protect against flying particles.  Safety glasses have lenses and frames that are impact resistant and are far stronger than regular streetwear.  Safety glasses must have side shields and should be worn whenever there is the possibility of flying particles, dust, wood chips, or paint to enter the eye. Always wear safety glasses when using any power tool.

Goggles: Goggles are tight-fitting eye protection that completely cover the eyes, eye sockets and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and provide protection from impact, dust and splashes. Safety goggles may have regular or indirect ventilation. (Goggles with indirect ventilation may be required if you are exposed to splash hazards, e.g., solvents, paints or thinners).

Gloves: Gloves are often relied upon to prevent cuts, abrasions, burns, and skin contact with chemicals.  It is important to select the most appropriate glove for a particular application and to determine how long it can be worn, and whether it can be reused. Nitrile gloves should be worn when handling large amounts of solvents or paint thinners.  Leather work gloves should be used in material handling to avoid severe cuts, lacerations, and abrasions.

Work shoes and boots: Leather work shoes or boots with impact protection should be worn when there is the potential for foot injuries from falling or rolling objects.   Leather work shoes or boots with puncture protection are recommended where sharp objects such as nails, wire, tacks, screws, large staples, etc., could be stepped on causing a foot injury.  Open-toed shoes may not be worn during any phase of set construction.

For more information on personal protective equipment, see Section B4 of the University Health and Safety Guide.

2.  Rigging
To safely rig and fly equipment and set pieces, a knowledge of both rigging hardware and methodology are necessary.  For Hoisting& Rigging training, contact Greg Cantrell at 258-5849.

The selection of rigging material and hardware should be based upon the size and type of load and the environmental conditions of the workplace.  The following guide may be useful in selecting the appropriate material:

Chains: Alloy steel chains are strong and able to adapt to the shape of the load.  Care should be taken when using chain because sudden shocks will damage them, which may result in chain failure and possible injury.  Chains must be visually inspected prior to use.  During the inspection, pay particular attention to any stretching, nicks, gouges, and wear in excess of the allowances made by the manufacturer.  These signs indicate that the chain may be unsafe and must be removed from service immediately.
Wire Rope: Wire rope is composed of individual wires that have been twisted to form strands.  Strands are then twisted to form a wire rope.  When selecting a wire rope to give the best service, there are four characteristics to consider: strength, ability to withstand fatigue (e.g., to bend without distortion), ability to withstand abrasive wear, and ability to withstand abuse.  Wire ropes must be visually inspected before each use.  Wire ropes with excessive broken wires, severe corrosion, localized wear, damage to end-fittings (e.g., hooks, rings, links, or collars), or damage to the rope structure (e.g., kinks, bird caging, distortion) must be removed from service and discarded.
Fiber Rope and Synthetic Web:  Fiber rope and synthetic web slings are used primarily for temporary work and are the best choice for use on expensive loads, highly finished or fragile parts, and delicate equipment.  Fiber rope slings deteriorate on contact with acids and caustics. Fiber rope slings that exhibit cuts, gouges, worn surface areas, brittle or discolored fibers, melting or charring must be discarded.  Synthetic web slings must be inspected before each use and should be removed from service if found to have acid or caustic burns, melting or charring of any part of the surface, snags, tears or cuts, broken stitches, distorted fittings, or wear or elongation beyond the manufacturer's specifications.

A wide variety of rigging hardware exists for various tasks.  Very close attention should be paid to the load capacity of the hardware being used.  Items purchased in a typical hardware store are not rated for load, and thus shouldn't be used for load-bearing applications.  Never use hardware if the load-bearing capacity is not known.  When employing eye bolts for rigging, use only the shouldered variety.

Selection of the correct sling and hardware is only one step in the rigging process.  There are a number of factors to consider when lifting a load safely:

Load Size, Weight and Center of Gravity: The center of gravity of an object is that point at which the entire weight may be considered to be concentrated.  To make a level lift, the hoist point must be located directly above this point.  Load imbalances must be corrected immediately.
Number of Legs and Angle with the Horizontal: The smaller the angle between the sling legs and the horizontal, the greater the stress on the individual sling legs.  This increased stress effectively decreases the weight that can be safely lifted with any given sling size.  Large (heavy) loads can be safely moved by keeping this angle as large as possible and, when necessary, distributing the weight of the load among more sling legs.
Rated Capacity of the Sling: The rated capacity of a sling varies depending upon the type of material the sling is made of, the size of the sling, and the type of hitch.  Workers must know the capacity of the sling, and can obtain this information through charts or tables available through the manufacturer.  The rated capacity of a sling must not be exceeded under any circumstances.
History of Care and Use: Mishandling and misuse of rigging material and hardware are the leading causes of rigging failure.  Following the manufacturer's recommendations for proper care and use are essential for maximum service life and safety.

Some general theatrical rigging guidelines include:
• Anything attached to a flybar must have a safety cable attached as well.
• Check that everything attached to a light, including barn doors, gel cases and safety cables, is secure before it is raised.
• Make sure the rope or cord is strong enough for what you are lifting and that the rope or cord is not frayed or damaged in any way.
• Empty all pockets before going onto the grid to ensure that nothing could fall to the stage.  Secure all tools to workers with safety lines.
• Wear hard hats whenever overhead rigging is in process
• Never drop anything from the grid to the floor.
• Do not use equipment whose load-bearing capacity is not known.
• Warn people on the stage or grid before moving any rigged scenery or other objects.
• Maintain visual contact with a moving piece at all times.

The Production Office performs inspections of rigging and overhead lighting weekly.  Rigging should also be inspected by the production crew before each use.

3.  Power and Hand Tools
Crew members should use a power tool only after receiving proper training.  Stage managers should review the operation of the equipment, making sure to point out safety features and guards. Crew members should be familiar with the owner's manual for the tool, and should know both the use and the limitations of a power tool.

Some guidelines for using tools include:

• Inspect tools before use to check for any defects such as frayed wires, or damaged hand tools.  Remove defective tools from service and have repaired or replaced.
• Only use power tools that are grounded with a 3-pronged plug or that are double-insulated.
• Never carry or hoist a power tool by its cord.
• Unplug power tools before loading them, changing blades or bits, making adjustments, or cleaning them – and follow the manufacturer's instructions.
• Never use power tools on wet surfaces or in wet weather.
• Discontinue use of defective or unsafe equipment as soon as the defect becomes known.
• Dull tools are unsafe and can damage work.  Maintain your tools and always use sharp cutting blades.
• Never alter or remove any machine or blade guards.


4.  Ladders
Portable ladders should be inspected at frequent, regular intervals and maintained in good condition free from oil, grease, or other slippery materials.  Defective ladders should be removed from service until repaired.  Those that cannot be repaired should be destroyed.

Ladders should always be placed on stable bases and, whenever possible, should be secured near the top and at the bottom.  Boxes, barrels, or other unstable surfaces should never be used to extend the reach of a ladder.

Never leave tools on a ladder and never drop or throw tools to another worker.  It is safer to climb a ladder, drop a line and haul an object up rather than carrying heavy objects up a ladder.

Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) has written a Portable Ladder Advisory for all University ladder users.  It includes a ladder inspection checklist which is helpful before each ladder use.

5. Lifting and Material Handling
Back pain and injuries related to lifting and material handling are some of the most frequent types of injuries.  While some factors that contribute to the potential for injury cannot be controlled, others can be reduced or minimized.  Stage pieces are often awkward, heavy, or unusually shaped, which impedes proper lifting techniques.

Some general lifting techniques include:

• Perform warm-up exercises prior to lifting – Warming up your back muscles can help increase bloodflow and reduce the stress of an initial lift.
• Use the right personal protective equipment – Some work gloves offer non-slip grips to handle a load easier.  Wear non-slip shoes to avoid a fall while carrying a load.
• Take time to size up the load – Is it too large or heavy for one person to lift? Will you be able to get through doorways and corridors as you are carrying it?  Can it be broken down into several trips?
• Plan your route ahead of time – Make sure there is a clear path to avoid tripping hazards.  Be able to see where you are going and avoid sharp turns or difficult courses.
Back belts provide no protection from back injuries.  EHS does not recommend the use of back belts for such purposes.

Proper lifting techniques

1. Stand close to the load – Carrying an object as close to your body as possible will keep the strain on your back at a minimum and will also help keep your center of gravity over your feet to maintain balance.
2. Bend your knees – Your leg muscles are much more equipped to handle heavy loads than your back muscles.  Bending your knees will allow you to lift with your legs and reduce the load on your lower back.
3. Grip the load securely – Get a secure handle on the object before you lift to avoid slipping.  If a load does start to fall away from you, let it go.  Severe injuries can occur if you attempt to catch a heavy object in an awkward position.
4. Follow these steps in reverse to lower the load – Back injuries can just as easily occur when putting down a load as when lifting it. Make sure you keep the load close to you and use your legs while lowering the load to the floor.

Please see Section A7 of the University Health & Safety Guide for more information on material handling

6.  Precautions for CCA-Treated Wood Products
Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) is a chemical preservative used to protect wood from rotting due to insects and microbial agents. Manufacturers of CCA treated wood have reached an agreement with the EPA to end the manufacture of CCA-treated wood for most consumer applications by December 31, 2003. However, in light of the fact that some wood products may still remain in stock, the EPA and the Consumer Product Safety Commission recommends the following precautions when working with CCA-treated wood:

• Cut, sand and machine CCA-treated wood outdoors.  Wear a dust mask, goggles and gloves.
• Clean up all sawdust, scraps and other construction debris thoroughly and dispose of in the trash.  Do not compost or mulch sawdust or remnants from CCA-treated wood.
• Do not burn CCA-treated wood
• After working with CCA-treated wood, wash all exposed areas of your body, especially the hands, thoroughly with soap and water before eating, drinking, toileting, or using tobacco products.

7.  Chemical Hazards
The key to safe chemical usage is to be aware of information on the physical and health hazards of chemicals, safe handling precautions, and emergency and first aid procedures.

Each chemical container bears a manufacturer label with the chemical name(s), hazard warnings, and the manufacturer's name and address. Labels must not be removed or defaced.  If the product is transferred from one container to another, the new container must be labeled with the product name, the names of all hazardous chemicals and/or the five most predominant chemical constituents, the Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) number for each chemical, and appropriate hazard warnings.

Each group must obtain and maintain a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for each hazardous material used.  A guide to understanding MSDS information is available through EHS.  These MSDSs must be accessible to individuals working with the products during all work hours.  If an MSDS is not received with a product, the group must obtain the MSDS within a reasonable amount of time. A number of MSDSs are available through the MSDS section of the EHS web page.
 

a) Paints, Inks, Pigments and Dyes
There are many different types of paints, inks, pigments and dyes used in the theater.  Some hazards are well known, while some are not yet understood.  Prudence dictates handling all materials cautiously.

• Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) on all paint and dye products.  If pigments and dyes are not identified by their Color Index (CI) names or numbers, ask your supplier for this information.
• Use MSDSs and product labels to identify the hazards of any toxic solvents, acids, or other chemicals in dyes, paints, inks, mordants, or other materials.
• Use water-based products whenever possible.
• Buy premixed paints and dyes if possible.  Dyes packaged in packets that dissolve when dropped unopened into hot water also can be handled safely.  Pigments and dyes are most hazardous and inhalable in a dry powdered state.
• Weigh or mix dye powders or other toxic powders where local exhaust ventilation is available.
• Avoid dusty procedures.  Sanding dry paints, sprinkling dry pigments or dyes on wet paints or glue, and other techniques that raise dust should be discontinued or performed in a local exhaust environment.
• Spray paints or dyes only under local exhaust conditions or outside
• Avoid skin contact with paints and pigments by wearing gloves or using barrier creams.  Use gloves with dyes.  Wash off paint splashes with safe cleaners like baby oil followed by soap and water, non-irritating waterless hand cleaners, or plain soap and water.  Never use solvents or bleaches to remove splashes from your skin.
• Wear protective clothing, including a full-length smock or coveralls.  Leave these garments in your studio to avoid bringing dusts home.
• Work on easy-to-clean surfaces and wipe up spills immediately.  Wet mop and sponge floors and surfaces.  Do not sweep.
• Avoid ingestion of materials by not eating, smoking, or drinking in your workplace.  Never use your lips to make a point on a brush; do not hold brush handles in your teeth.  Never use cooking utensils for dyeing.  A pot that seems clean can be porous enough to hold hazardous amounts of residual dye.  Wash your hands before eating, drinking or smoking.
• Keep containers of paint, powdered dyes, pigments and solvents closed except when you are using them.

Many paints and solvents are flammable and present their own class of hazards.  Vapors from flammable liquids ignite readily when mixed in certain proportions with air in the presence of an ignition source and could result in an explosion.  Flammable and combustible liquids vaporize and form flammable mixtures with air when in open containers, when leaks occur, or when heated.

• Use nonflammable materials like water base paint whenever possible. Water-base or latex paints are less hazardous and allow for easier clean-up and disposal than oil-based paints.
• Buy as you need it -- quantities should be limited to the amount necessary for the work in progress.
• Control all ignition sources in areas where flammable liquids are used.  No smoking or open flames should be present during the use of flammable liquids.
• Spray paint cans are under extreme pressure and could rupture when exposed to fire
• Never puncture aerosol cans or expose them to high heat or other stresses
• Read and follow the manufacturer's label and precautions on aerosol cans
• Paints and thinners should not be mixed with general trash or poured down the drain.  Contact EHS at 8-5294 if you have flammable liquids to be disposed.

Please refer to Section C2 of the University Health & Safety Guide for more information.

b.  Plastics
Theater workers use plastics for a variety of applications, such as casting applications, structural elements, and costuming.  Equally as varied are the different types of materials and processes used to achieve these effects:

1. Polyester casting systems - There are several hazards associated with these systems, including the crosslinking agent (commonly styrene), the initiating agent (a peroxide), and sometimes fiberglass used for reinforcement.
2. Epoxy Resins - Epoxy resins are usually two-component systems, the epoxy and the curing agent.  Heat is generated during the curing process.  Epoxies can be sensitizing agents, causing an allergic skin reaction.
3. Polyurethane Resins - Many theatrical professionals have ceased to use polyurethane foam casting systems due to the health hazards associated with these products.  Polyurethane resins can give off hazardous products such as hydrogen cyanide gas and carbon monoxide when heated or burned.
4. Finished plastic products - Hazardous decomposition products can be released when finished plastic products are subject to cutting, sanding, press molding, grinding, heat shrinking, torching or melting.  Certain types of plastics offer additional hazards when cutting or heating.  For more information, contact Kelly States, 8-2648

c. Chemical Spills
In the event of a chemical spill, the individual(s) who caused the spill is responsible for prompt and proper clean up.  Princeton University does not have a spill response team.  Improper clean up of a spill may result in injury, illness, fire, a release to the environment, or property damage.

Contact Public Safety at 911 if:

There is a fire or medical attention is needed

the quantity of material spilled is more than one gallon

you are uncomfortable in your ability to clean up the spill

there is a release to the environment (i.e., soil, waterways, sewer, etc.)

Planning for spills is essential.  Before beginning work with chemicals, be sure that the appropriate types and amounts of spill clean-up materials and personal protective equipment are immediately available.

Review Material Safety Data Sheets or other references for recommended spill clean-up methods and materials, and the need for personal protective equipment (e.g., gloves, aprons, etc.)

General guidelines for cleaning up spills:

Immediately alert others in the area, and evacuate the area, if necessary

Contaminated clothing must be removed immediately and the skin flushed with water for no less than fifteen minutes.  Clothing must be laundered before reuse

If a volatile, flammable material is spilled, immediately warn others in the area, control sources of ignition and ventilate the area

Please see the Chemical Spill Procedures section of the EHS web page for more specific instructions.

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• Place trash in proper receptacles, preferably in metal containers.
• Clean up after each work session
• Avoid accumulating scrap lumber and materials
• Purchase materials as needed to avoid the need for additional storage
• Store tools in the proper areas when not in use

Housekeeping is the sole responsibility of the students.  This includes the dressing rooms, scene shop, and audience seating areas.

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D. Storage of Materials
The proper storage of materials in theater spaces is extremely important to the efficiency of the production and the safety of the cast, crew and audience.  The NJ Uniform Fire Code mandates certain storage requirements, such as:

• Flammable and combustible liquids must be stored in approved flammable storage cabinets.
• If the building has sprinklers, materials must be a minimum of 18 inches below sprinkler heads. Materials in any building must be a minimum of 24 inches below the ceiling
• Materials must never obstruct an exit from the building
• Stored materials must be a minimum of three feet in all directions from unit heaters, duct furnaces and flues
• Smoking is prohibited in all places of assembly and in spaces where combustible materials are stored or handled
• Materials may not be stored under seating risers or steps
• A working space of at least 30 inches in width, 36 inches in depth and 78 inches in height must be kept in front of electrical service equipment

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